I. MODALS PERMISSION -asking for formal consent or approval -common modal verbs for permission: can, may, could, might "could" and "might" are more polite ways to ask for permission Use the formula: MODAL + SUBJECT + BASE VERB + OBJECT ex. Could I use your phone? OBLIGATION -sense of duty demanded by conscience or gratitude. expressed by the modals must, should, ought to, have to SUBJECT + MODAL + BASE FORM OF THE VERB + OBJECT. ex. You should see a doctor PROHIBITION -restraining or stopping someone by authority. SUBJECT + MODAL + ADVERB OF NEGATION + BASE FORM OF THE VERB + OBJECT ex. Ryan must not skip his classes II. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS REGULAR VERBS - add "d" or "ed" IRREGULAR VERBS - change spelling ex. BASE FORM PRESENT FUTURE draw drew drawn act acted acted cut cut cut get got gotten begin began begun III. PERFECT TENSES OF VERB PAST PERFECT TENSE had + past participle Example: had eaten, had gone, had studied Example: I had finished my homework before my friend arrived. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE has/have + past participle Example: has eaten, have gone, have studied FUTURE PERFECT TENSE will have + past participle Example: will have eaten, will have gone, will have studied Example: By next month, I will have finished my project. IV. FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD PERSPECTIVE FIRST PERSON PERSPECTIVE -The narrator is inside the story and is telling it from their own point of view. Uses I, me, my, we, us, our. SECOND PERSON PERSPECTIVE -The narrator speaks directly to the reader, making them part of the story. Uses you, your. THIRD PERSON PERSPECTIVE -The narrator is outside the story and describes events from an external view. Uses he, she, it, they, them, his, her, their. V. TYPES OF PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS -uses for people or things DEMONSTRAIVE PRONOUNS -point to specific things ex. this, that, these, those REFLEXIVE PRONOUN -refer back to the subject ex. myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN -uses in questions ex, who, whom, whose, what, which INDEFINITE PRONOUNS -refer to nonspecific people or things ex. everyone, someone, somebody, anything, each, many, few RELATIVE PRONOUNS -connect clauses or phrases ex. who, whom, whose, which, that VI. PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES OF VERBS PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE -illustrates a continuous action in the past that was completed before another past action had been + present participle (verb + -ing) PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE -talks about a continuous action that was initiated the past and finished at some point in the present. has/have been + present participle FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE -indicates a continuous action that will be completed in the future will have been + present participle VII. PROGRESSIVE TENSES PAST PROGRESSIVE -Action was ongoing in the past at a specific time or when another event happened. was/were + present participle (verb + -ing) PRESENT PROGRESSIVE -Action is happening now or is in progress. am/is/are + present participle FUTURE PROGRESSIVE -Action will be ongoing at a specific time in the future. will be + present participle VIII. CLAUSES CLAUSE -A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate (verb). Every clause has a doer (subject) and an action (verb). Some clauses can stand alone as sentences, others cannot. Two Main Types of Clauses 1. Independent Clause Can stand alone as a complete sentence. Has a complete thought. Examples: She loves music. We went to the park. 2. Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause) -Cannot stand alone. -Needs an independent clause to make sense. -Often starts with subordinating conjunctions (because, although, if, when, since, etc.) or relative pronouns (who, which, that). Examples: Because she loves music (incomplete) When we went to the park (incomplete IX. NORMAL AND INVERTED SENTENCES NORMAL SENTENCES Structure: Subject + Verb ex. We have never met before ex. The cat is on the roof INVERTED SENTENCES Structure: Verb + Subject ex. Never have we met before ex. on the roof is the cat X. COMMUNICATIVE STYLES INTIMATE STYLE -used by participants who know each other well or share a very close relationships -they may use words of endearment such as love or honey. CASUAL STYLE -uses a language used between friends, peers, colleagues, or family -jargon, slang, or vernacular language are used -nicknames and interruption are used in addressing one another. CONSULTATIVE STYLE -happens in a two way participation -often used in business or in other professional ideas FORMAL STYLE -one way communication -there is no participants from the listener FROZEN STYLE -most formal style -fixed and formal expressions; language does not change. XI. CONDITIONALS ZERO - If + present simple, present simple FIRST - If + present simple, will + base verb SECOND - If + past simple, would + base verb THIRD - If + past perfect, would have + past participle