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I. MODALS
PERMISSION -asking for formal consent or approval -common modal verbs for permission: can, may, could, might "could" and "might" are more polite ways to ask for permission Use the formula: MODAL + SUBJECT + BASE VERB + OBJECT ex. Could I use your phone?
OBLIGATION -sense of duty demanded by conscience or gratitude. expressed by the modals must, should, ought to, have to SUBJECT + MODAL + BASE FORM OF THE VERB + OBJECT. ex. You should see a doctor
PROHIBITION -restraining or stopping someone by authority. SUBJECT + MODAL + ADVERB OF NEGATION + BASE FORM OF THE VERB + OBJECT ex. Ryan must not skip his classes
II. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
REGULAR VERBS - add "d" or "ed" IRREGULAR VERBS - change spelling
ex. BASE FORM PRESENT FUTURE draw drew drawn act acted acted cut cut cut get got gotten begin began begun
III. PERFECT TENSES OF VERB
PAST PERFECT TENSE had + past participle Example: had eaten, had gone, had studied Example: I had finished my homework before my friend arrived.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE has/have + past participle Example: has eaten, have gone, have studied
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE will have + past participle Example: will have eaten, will have gone, will have studied Example: By next month, I will have finished my project.
IV. FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD PERSPECTIVE
FIRST PERSON PERSPECTIVE -The narrator is inside the story and is telling it from their own point of view. Uses I, me, my, we, us, our.
SECOND PERSON PERSPECTIVE -The narrator speaks directly to the reader, making them part of the story. Uses you, your.
THIRD PERSON PERSPECTIVE -The narrator is outside the story and describes events from an external view. Uses he, she, it, they, them, his, her, their.
V. TYPES OF PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS -uses for people or things
DEMONSTRAIVE PRONOUNS -point to specific things ex. this, that, these, those
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN -refer back to the subject ex. myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN -uses in questions ex, who, whom, whose, what, which
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS -refer to nonspecific people or things ex. everyone, someone, somebody, anything, each, many, few
RELATIVE PRONOUNS -connect clauses or phrases ex. who, whom, whose, which, that
VI. PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES OF VERBS
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE -illustrates a continuous action in the past that was completed before another past action had been + present participle (verb + -ing)
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE -talks about a continuous action that was initiated the past and finished at some point in the present. has/have been + present participle
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE -indicates a continuous action that will be completed in the future will have been + present participle
VII. PROGRESSIVE TENSES
PAST PROGRESSIVE -Action was ongoing in the past at a specific time or when another event happened. was/were + present participle (verb + -ing)
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE -Action is happening now or is in progress. am/is/are + present participle
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE -Action will be ongoing at a specific time in the future. will be + present participle
VIII. CLAUSES
CLAUSE -A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate (verb). Every clause has a doer (subject) and an action (verb). Some clauses can stand alone as sentences, others cannot.
Two Main Types of Clauses
- Independent Clause Can stand alone as a complete sentence. Has a complete thought.
Examples: She loves music. We went to the park.
- Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause) -Cannot stand alone. -Needs an independent clause to make sense. -Often starts with subordinating conjunctions (because, although, if, when, since, etc.) or relative pronouns (who, which, that).
Examples: Because she loves music (incomplete) When we went to the park (incomplete
IX. NORMAL AND INVERTED SENTENCES
NORMAL SENTENCES Structure: Subject + Verb ex. We have never met before ex. The cat is on the roof
INVERTED SENTENCES Structure: Verb + Subject ex. Never have we met before ex. on the roof is the cat
X. COMMUNICATIVE STYLES
INTIMATE STYLE -used by participants who know each other well or share a very close relationships -they may use words of endearment such as love or honey.
CASUAL STYLE -uses a language used between friends, peers, colleagues, or family -jargon, slang, or vernacular language are used -nicknames and interruption are used in addressing one another.
CONSULTATIVE STYLE -happens in a two way participation -often used in business or in other professional ideas
FORMAL STYLE -one way communication -there is no participants from the listener
FROZEN STYLE -most formal style -fixed and formal expressions; language does not change.
XI. CONDITIONALS
ZERO - If + present simple, present simple FIRST - If + present simple, will + base verb SECOND - If + past simple, would + base verb THIRD - If + past perfect, would have + past participle